The Range of Judaism
Judaism consists of various “branches,” also known as denominations or streams, that span from traditional religious practices to more liberal interpretations. It is important to note that Jewish identity is not solely based on religious beliefs; Jewishness and Judaism are not synonymous. While Judaism is typically the religious practice of Jews, there are Jewish individuals who may selectively follow certain aspects of Judaism that resonate with them, while others may not practice Judaism at all. Some may even adopt different faiths, such as Buddhism. The spectrum of Judaism encompasses a wide range of beliefs and practices.
Half a century ago, Judaism was often categorized into three main branches, with most Jews aligning themselves with one of them: Orthodox (traditional), Reform (liberal, known as Liberal or Progressive in Europe), and Conservative (a middle-ground branch, referred to as Masorti outside North America). While there were smaller offshoots like Reconstructionist Judaism, the majority of American Jews fell into one of the “big three.”
Although the big three still play a significant role, Judaism today encompasses a broader spectrum.
Today, Judaism offers a wider spectrum of beliefs and practices. For instance, some individuals may identify as “Conservadox” (bridging Conservative and Orthodox Judaism). Additionally, certain Reform Temples may exhibit characteristics of being more “Reformative” (bridging Reform and Conservative) rather than strictly adhering to traditional Reform practices.
Beliefs and Practices
It is important to recognize that while each branch of Judaism has its established beliefs, attending a particular synagogue does not automatically mean that an individual subscribes to or comprehends those beliefs.
Orthodox Judaism, for example, officially acknowledges the existence of God, yet there are individuals within Orthodox synagogues who may identify as agnostic or atheist. This diversity is reflective of Judaism’s emphasis on ethical living rather than specific beliefs. While many Jewish individuals may have been raised with certain religious beliefs that may evolve or diminish over time, they often choose to uphold Jewish values and traditions. Orthodox Judaism, for instance, follows specific behavioral practices like observing kosher dietary laws and observing the Sabbath according to Jewish law, but beyond affirming the oneness of God (found in the Shema, Deuteronomy 6:4), there are no strict doctrinal requirements. It is essential to recognize that individual beliefs and practices may vary within each branch of Judaism.
Furthermore, unlike previous generations, many Jewish individuals today do not affiliate with a synagogue and may create their own personalized version of Judaism that does not neatly align with any of the traditional branches.
With that being said, the following overview of the three main branches still serves as a helpful guide to understanding the landscape of Judaism.
The Orthodox Branch of Judaism
Prior to the late 18th century, Judaism was predominantly Orthodox in nature, with no need to distinguish it as a separate branch until other, less traditional forms of Judaism emerged.
Orthodox Judaism places a strong emphasis on living in accordance with the Torah (the Law of Moses) as interpreted by rabbinic tradition. According to Orthodox beliefs, Moses received not only the Written Law (the text of the Torah in the Hebrew Bible) at Sinai but also the Oral Law (its proper interpretation). The Oral Law, which was transmitted orally from Moses through each generation, was eventually transcribed starting in the 2nd century A.D. in the Mishnah.
The Mishnah was later expounded upon and interpreted in the Gemara; together, the Mishnah and Gemara form the Talmud. There are two versions of the Talmud: the Jerusalem Talmud or Yerushalmi, and the Babylonian Talmud or Bavli. The Babylonian Talmud is considered more authoritative and is widely available in an English edition spanning 18 volumes.
Through successive generations of rabbinic commentary on the Talmud, a body of Jewish religious law known as halakha was established, governing both individual and communal behavior. Halakha encompasses a wide range of religious and civil matters, outlining the proper observance of Sabbath, festivals, and civil laws.
Orthodox Jewish education places a significant emphasis on Talmudic study, with young children initially learning from the Bible before progressing to the study of the Talmud and its commentaries.
Two Streams within Orthodox Judaism
Presently, Orthodox Judaism consists of two main streams. Modern Orthodoxy adopts a more inclusive approach towards broader society, encouraging engagement with modern societal norms while upholding halakhic principles. Secular studies are valued alongside religious studies within Modern Orthodoxy.
The other stream, often referred to as Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism, prefers a more insular lifestyle, limiting interactions with secular culture outside their communities. While some individuals may engage in businesses serving the general population, Haredi Jews typically avoid secular entertainment and education, maintaining strict gender segregation in educational settings and adhering to traditional modes of dress and language.
Hasidic Judaism, a subset of Haredi Judaism, consists of various dynastic sects named after their European town of origin, such as Lubavitcher Hasidim. Each sect is led by a revered figure known as a rebbe, who holds spiritual authority and serves as a conduit to God for their followers. Hasidic Judaism incorporates kabbalah, a form of Jewish mysticism that emphasizes the immanence of God within all creation and the pursuit of spiritual elevation through the performance of mitzvot (commandments).
According to a 2013 survey in the United States, 10% of American Jews identify as Orthodox. In contrast, Orthodox Judaism remains the largest Jewish affiliation in Europe.
The Reform Branch of Judaism
Reform Judaism emerged as a response to the modernizing influences of the 18th-century Enlightenment in Europe, which challenged traditional religious beliefs. Reason was prioritized over revelation, leading to the establishment of Reform Judaism in 19th-century Germany. Many modern Jews began to question the authority of halakha and the Bible, favoring a more adaptable and rational approach to Judaism.
Reform Jews often view traditional Jewish beliefs and rituals as outdated or superstitious, adapting certain beliefs to align with modern sensibilities. For instance, the concept of a singular messianic leader chosen by God was replaced with the idea of a messianic era initiated through human efforts. Similarly, the notion of a future bodily resurrection was replaced with the belief in living on through one’s deeds or descendants. Reform Judaism revised synagogue services, eliminating prayers deemed irrelevant for contemporary audiences and transitioning services to the vernacular language of the community.
Western European Jews, particularly in countries like Germany, sought assimilation into broader society, viewing their nationality as English, French, or German, with Judaism serving as their religious identity. As a result, reform synagogues conducted services in the local language and adopted customs from Christian practices, including congregating on Sundays rather than the traditional Jewish Sabbath.
Reform Judaism gained traction in Western Europe and North America, emphasizing ethical principles over ceremonial rituals. The movement prioritized the teachings of the Prophets, who championed justice and equity, over the ritualistic aspects of the Torah. This emphasis on social justice led Reform Jews to actively participate in societal causes and engage with broader human issues.
Initially, Reform Judaism rejected Zionism, advocating for Jewish integration within their respective nations. However, following significant events like the Russian pogroms and the Holocaust, American Reform Judaism became staunch supporters of Zionism.
Over time, Reform Judaism has evolved to incorporate aspects of tradition, though more as a matter of cultural identity or personal choice rather than strict religious adherence. Reform Jews tend to embrace Jewish practices that resonate with them individually, granting each individual the freedom to live according to their personal convictions. As a result, the daily lives of many Reform Jews may closely resemble those of non-Jewish individuals.
In Europe, Reform Judaism is often referred to as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, while in Hungary, it is known as Neolog Judaism. Despite these variations in nomenclature, North America remains a hub for Reform Judaism.
As of 2013, 35% of American Jews identified as Reform. While comparable data for Europe is unavailable, in 2010, there were 150 Reform (Liberal, Progressive) congregations in Europe, with 80 located in the U.K.
The Conservative Branch of Judaism
Known as Masorti Judaism outside of North America, Conservative Judaism traces its roots to 19th-century Germany but has predominantly flourished as an American movement. Positioned between Orthodox and Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism emphasizes the preservation of Jewish tradition, as indicated by its name “Conservative.”
For Conservative Jews, halakha remains a guiding principle but is open to greater reinterpretation and development compared to Orthodox Judaism. Unlike Reform Judaism, where individual autonomy is paramount, Conservative Judaism places value on the collective voice of the Jewish community. The motto of “tradition and change” underscores the movement’s commitment to striking a balance between tradition and modernity. This middle-ground approach has led to some ambiguity surrounding certain theological concepts, and the adherence to traditional Jewish practices may vary among congregational members.
Examples of the middle-ground approach within Conservative Judaism include the acceptance of mixed-gender seating (established in the 1940s), permission to use electricity on the Sabbath (authorized in 1950), and allowance for driving to synagogue on the Sabbath (also permitted in 1950). These practices, which are forbidden in Orthodox Judaism, do not require official rulings for Reform Jews to adopt.
Contemporary Conservative Judaism
While Conservative Judaism dominated the American Jewish landscape in the post-World War II era (with 41% of American Jews identifying as Conservative in the 1970s), the movement has experienced a decline in affiliation in recent years. As of 2013, an estimated 18% of American Jews affiliate with Conservative Judaism. Various factors, including a focus on halakhic expectations without addressing congregational needs, have been cited as reasons for the movement’s diminishing popularity.
In Europe, the equivalent branch of Judaism is known as Masorti Judaism. The term “Masorti” translates to “traditional” and reflects a more traditional approach compared to American Conservative Judaism. There are officially listed 30 Masorti congregations, with 12 located in the U.K. and 6 in France, spread across various European countries. Despite the decline of Conservative Judaism in North America, Masorti congregations have become the fastest-growing segment of Judaism in Europe.
Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism emerged as a branch of Conservative Judaism, shaped largely by the vision of Mordecai Kaplan, who viewed Judaism as a dynamic religious civilization. Kaplan transitioned from Orthodox to Conservative Judaism before founding Reconstructionist Judaism, which emphasizes tradition and communal decision-making more than Reform Judaism, while allowing for a wide range of beliefs and practices.
In 1922, Kaplan conducted a bat mitzvah ceremony for girls, including his daughter Judith, which subsequently became a common practice within Judaism. Prior to this, bat mitzvah ceremonies were typically reserved for boys only. Reconstructionist Judaism also popularized the concept of the chavurah, or small fellowship group, which served as an alternative to traditional Jewish institutions, fostering communal gatherings for Sabbath services, lifecycle events, and study.
As of 2013, only 1% of American Jews identified with Reconstructionist Judaism. Despite its relatively small size, Reconstructionist Judaism has made significant contributions in mainstreaming the bat mitzvah ceremony and promoting the chavurah movement within Jewish communities.
The Diversity of Judaism—In Conclusion
Irrespective of size, each branch of Judaism has influenced and been influenced by Jewish individuals worldwide, contributing to a diverse spectrum of beliefs and practices. Ranging from staunchly Orthodox to deeply liberal interpretations, Judaism accommodates a broad array of perspectives. Notably, approximately 30% of American Jews do not align with a specific branch of Judaism, emphasizing their Jewish identity apart from formal affiliations. While Judaism maintains its essential unity, its ongoing diversity continues to reflect the ever-evolving nature of Jewish belief and practice.
This article is adapted from a previous Jews for Jesus publication dated February 1, 1990.
Endnotes
1. Pew Research Center, Survey of U.S. Jews, Feb. 20–June 13, 2013. Figures may not sum to 100% due to rounding. Based on the net Jewish population (both Jews by religion and Jews of no religion). http://www.pewforum.org/2013/10/01/jewish-american-beliefs-attitudes-culture-survey/
2. Fishkoff, Sue. “Europe’s Conservative movement enjoying popularity boom.” Jewish News of Northern California, October 1, 2010. https://www.jweekly.com/2010/10/01/europes-conservative-movement-enjoying-popularity-boom/.
3. Pew Research Center, ibid.
4. Fishkoff, ibid.
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Judaism
6. Daniel Gordis, “Conservative Judaism: A Requiem,” Jewish Review of Books (Winter 2014), https://jewishreviewofbooks.com/articles/566/requiem-for-a-movement/
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Pew Research Center, ibid.
10. Ibid.